Brain Structure

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that carry information from nerve cell to nerve cell in the brain. These chemical messengers, including serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine work together in the brain to control mood, behavior and emotion. Serotonin is often referred to as the happy drug because it can actually keep people in a positive mood despite the fact that they may be feeling blue and in need of some sunshine. While it is true that people who are in a happy state feel better, the link between happiness and dopamine or norepinephrine is often overlooked. This deficiency in the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine can contribute to the feelings of sadness, hopelessness and despair that occur with depression. The National Institute of Mental Health has determined that these two neurotransmitters are responsible for the depression-related thoughts, emotions and behaviors that people experience.

However, researchers are learning that the relationship between depression and neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine may also exist in the context of another problem common to many Americans today, substance abuse. People suffering from substance abuse often display symptoms similar to clinical depression. One of the most common medications used in treating the clinical condition is called antidepressants or antipsychotic drugs. Although these medications have been shown to successfully treat some cases of depression, they can also lead to a serious imbalance in brain chemistry. When there is a chemical imbalance, the brain must react by creating the opposite reaction or else it will have difficulty functioning properly.

There is an essential level of serotonin that is produced in the brain and is responsible for regulating mood, appetite, temperature and sleep. In the normal functioning of the body, the levels of serotonin tend to be balanced. When there is a shortage of serotonin neurotransmitters affected by depression start to fire at a higher rate and cause problems for the brain to process what is going on. When a person suffers from depression, the imbalance causes them to have problems sleeping, have low appetite and experience hot flashes. The rise in blood pressure as a result of this influx of neurotransmitters is often the cause of other serious ailments related to the heart, including high blood pressure and cardiac arrhythmia.

One of the substances thought to affect serotonin and norepinephrine is epinephrine. This is a hormone created by the adrenal gland and carries oxygen to the muscles and heart. When there is a severe imbalance in the amount of epinephrine in the brain, people who suffer from depression can develop the symptoms of panic disorder, anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorders. The chemicals in epinephrine that it causes to be released into the body are also believed to contribute to cases of restless legs syndrome as well as shortness of breath. While it is not known exactly how these chemicals influence depression, researchers have found that patients who suffer from depression also tend to lack of dopamine, an important substance needed to transmit messages from the brain to various parts of the body. These patients also have low levels of energy, which can lead to irritability, which can increase the risk of depression.

GABA is another neurotransmitter affected by the chemical imbalance. This is a naturally occurring chemical that works to control the activity of neurons. It is used by the brain to control emotion, mood and sleep. In some cases, patients with depression have a reduced level of GABA. In addition to affecting your mood, anxiety and other mental health conditions, GABA is believed to contribute to the development of conditions such as restless legs syndrome and migraine headaches.

Neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA are sent across the nerve synapse by receptor neurons. Neurotransmitters act as messengers, passing information from one cell to another. The receptors on these cells send the information along on their journey to other neurons. When the information reaches the target cell, the neurotransmitter sends the signal for the next set of neurons to receive the message.

Neurons in the brain use neurotransmitters to communicate information between cells. Neurons control behavior and can fire in different ways depending on what the messages are. The brain is composed of over a hundred nerve cells, many of which are specialized to perform different functions such as moving information from one region of the brain to another. Without the chemical messengers, the nervous system would cease to function properly.

Neurotransmitters are released in the body when a chemical causes the neurons to fire. When you are feeling sad or depressed, the secretion of neurotransmitter serotonin in your body is increased. This results in a variety of different emotional responses such as sadness, anxiety and sleep disorders. Because some researchers believe that the decrease of serotonin contributes to the development of depression, scientists are researching new methods of treating depression.

What do you most remember about being eighteen? For me, it is the impulsiveness. Cruising into tattoo parlors and blurting out little-considered ideas for permanent ink designs and various piercings. Jumping off a pier in Greece only to realize I’d have to swim quite far to find an exit, all the while with boats headed my direction. Often speaking before I’d considered my words. It was a time of unmitigated youth – which I now think of as synonymous for poor decision making and routine embarrassment.

I would need quite a few martinis to consider doing many of the things I did without thought or question when I was eighteen. What has changed? Are we simply older and wiser, grown more cautious by our experiences? I would posit that if that were the only mechanism of change, growing up shouldn’t have taken quite so long. An alternative explanation is that the very pathways of our brain chemistry have changed. Impulsiveness, it turns out, has a lot to do with brain chemistry. For those people whose chemistry doesn’t naturally alter with age, impulsiveness can continue long past youthful days.

That is what spurred researchers in the United Kingdom to look into how dopamine and serotonin in the brain impacts impulse control. Dopamine and serotonin are important neurotransmitters. Dopamine is affiliated with pleasure and serotonin is affiliated with mood regulation and, often, with impulse control. The study found that impulse control is more nuanced and multifaceted than often represented. The research suggests that claiming serotonin as the impulse control neurotransmitter is not representative of the wide range of contributors when it comes to regulating our impulses. In particular, there are several dimensions of impulsivity and different dimensions may be governed by different pathways.

They conclude that both serotonin and dopamine systems are likely at work, and that medications relating to these pathways have been pivotal in their contribution to clinical psychology as it relates to impulse control disorders.

In the United States there is one idea that is universally cherished – the idea of the American dream. At the heart of this… Does Family Income Alter Brain Structure? One Study Says Yes.

In the United States there is one idea that is universally cherished – the idea of the American dream. At the heart of this construction is the belief that in a free society people are able to pull themselves up through sheer determination. It is the idea that anyone can be the next great entrepreneur, the next celebrity actor or even the next president. In recent years, this ideal has come under attack from a number of corners. Children who aren’t spoken to as often at home, a trend that is more likely to occur in low-income families, enter the traditional education system at a distinct disadvantage. Having heard significantly fewer works, their grasp of language is already below average. This disadvantage compounds over time. Certainly someone who doesn’t need to work through college will have more time to study. Moreover, as they say, it takes money to make money. A person with a padded trust fund can make very different decisions than someone who needs to pay their way through life, or even support family members at a young age.

Most people now agree that it is easier for some people to excel than others. Still, the dream lives on. As long as you work hard to overcome the obstacles of your upbringing, our society embraces upward social and economic mobility. What if, however, growing up poor impacts the very structure of your brain?

A recent study says just that. In a study of 1,0999 children between the ages of 3 and 20 years old, researchers found that even small differences in family income resulted in relatively large differences in cognitive development among poorer children. Small differences mattered less between children who were comparatively well-off. Specifically, the brains of children from poorer families exhibited less surface area. The poorer the child, the smaller the surface area. As hurdles go, this is a stunningly major one, lending credence to the idea that our nation’s youth should be better protected from the consequences of poverty.

The central nervous system (CNS) is arguably the most important part of the human body. It includes the brain and the spinal cord.

The central nervous system (CNS) is arguably the most important part of the human body. It includes the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is widely believed to be where all our thought originate. It compares and contrasts. It strings together words and paragraphs. It helps us to understand and communicate with the world around us. Given the complexity of this remarkable organ, it is hardly surprising that we are still uncovering its secrets. One such secret is the important role of astrocytes.

The brain isn’t only occupied by neurons. Glial cells are also a local inhabitant. Though long thought to be little more than the neurons’ sidekicks, we now know that glial cells are a crucial component of CNS operations. Astrocytes are one of four identified glial cells in the CNS. Two additional varieties hang out in the periphery nervous system.

Astrocytes are essential for maintaining homeostasis in the CNS. They also play a role In brain defense and rejuvenation. Their malfunction or retardation contributes to cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative disease. The percentage of poorly performing astrocytes, like neurodegenerative diseases, increases with age. Their atrophy has been linked to the early stages of Alzheimer’s Disease. In later stages, reactive astrocytes are associated with neurite plaques in several regions of the brain.

As is often the case, understanding the mechanisms that lead to problems is the first step in solving the problems. If atrophy of astrocytes is associated with the first stages of neurodegenerative disease, and then reactive astrocytes are associated with later stages of the illness, they may be a good target for treatments. Luckily, astrocytes are known to respond well to environmental stimulation and also to medication. This may also help to explain why staying mentally active is thought to ward of some types of neurodegenerative diseases. If you can keep your astrocytes healthy, they may help keep your entire brain in tip-top condition, or at least help you remember where you put your keys.

Cerebral organoids are arguably the coolest thing happening in neuroscience. It all starts with pluripotent stem cells – which are an amazing advancement in…

Cerebral organoids are arguably the coolest thing happening in neuroscience. It all starts with pluripotent stem cells – which are an amazing advancement in their own right. These are adult cells that have been genetically modified to behave as stem cells. Ever wonder why the debate over the ethical ramifications of using embryotic stem cells ended? Pluripotent stem cells are the answer. They have the ability, and flexibility, to grow into any type of adult cell, rendering the necessity of using embryonic stem cells obsolete in many instances.

The pluripotent stem cells are then used to grow teeny tiny tissue samples, in our case brain-like tissue samples, in vitro. The idea is that a simplistic model of the tissues and cells of the brain in a petri dish is much easier to study than the real thing – a complicated mesh of tissue and blood pulsating underneath a protective skull. According of a recent study highlighting the many potential uses of cerebral organoids: “Cerebral organoids contain many of the cell types found in embryonic cerebral cortex, organized in a similar way.” In addition, since these organoids have been grown from human stem cells, they may shed light on pathways and processes that differ between rodents – which are often the animals of choice in neurological research – and primates.

Cerebral organoids are already being used to bolster human health research. In order to study the impact of the Zika virus on the human brain, researchers injected the virus into brain-like organoids. The results were largely as expected: the infected tissues grew to be 40 percent smaller than the control tissue. Given the simplistic nature of, and easy access to, these infected organoids scientists were able to identify cell death as a mechanism of the virus and even pinpoint specific genes and pathways thought to be involved. This level of understanding could not have been achieved as quickly without using cerebral organoids as models.