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Learning from Cerebral Organoids

Cerebral organoids are arguably the coolest thing happening in neuroscience. It all starts with pluripotent stem cells – which are an amazing advancement in…

Cerebral organoids are arguably the coolest thing happening in neuroscience. It all starts with pluripotent stem cells – which are an amazing advancement in their own right. These are adult cells that have been genetically modified to behave as stem cells. Ever wonder why the debate over the ethical ramifications of using embryotic stem cells ended? Pluripotent stem cells are the answer. They have the ability, and flexibility, to grow into any type of adult cell, rendering the necessity of using embryonic stem cells obsolete in many instances.

The pluripotent stem cells are then used to grow teeny tiny tissue samples, in our case brain-like tissue samples, in vitro. The idea is that a simplistic model of the tissues and cells of the brain in a petri dish is much easier to study than the real thing – a complicated mesh of tissue and blood pulsating underneath a protective skull. According of a recent study highlighting the many potential uses of cerebral organoids: “Cerebral organoids contain many of the cell types found in embryonic cerebral cortex, organized in a similar way.” In addition, since these organoids have been grown from human stem cells, they may shed light on pathways and processes that differ between rodents – which are often the animals of choice in neurological research – and primates.

Cerebral organoids are already being used to bolster human health research. In order to study the impact of the Zika virus on the human brain, researchers injected the virus into brain-like organoids. The results were largely as expected: the infected tissues grew to be 40 percent smaller than the control tissue. Given the simplistic nature of, and easy access to, these infected organoids scientists were able to identify cell death as a mechanism of the virus and even pinpoint specific genes and pathways thought to be involved. This level of understanding could not have been achieved as quickly without using cerebral organoids as models.

The Mouse Who Got a New Body

It may sound like something out a science fiction movie, but allogenic head and body reconstruction research is moving full speed ahead at Harbin Medical University in China. Interestingly, it isn’t the physiological challenges of joining one animal’s head to another’s body that is new. In the 1960s and 1970s, Dr. White was pioneering work that dealt specifically with the anatomical complications of such a transplant. Where he failed was in immunotherapy. His animal bodies ultimately rejected the new head, initiating a microscopic battle on the foreign tissue.

We have come a long way since then. The first successful hand transplant was conducted more than a decade ago. Livers, kidneys and other organs are routinely transplanted as well. Though we have not completely solved the immunotherapy issue, we have made great progress. Enough progress that Dr. Xiaoping Ren wants to revisit the head transplant idea.

His 2015 study, Head Transplant in Mouse Model, is only the first step. In this study he used mice as his guinea pigs, so to speak, in an effort to develop a model where their brains would survive the procedure. Specifically, he wanted to avoid brain ischemia, in which blood flow to the brain becomes too low to maintain the organ’s oxygen supply. Brain ischemia results in the death of brain tissue, which would render any head transplant unsuccessful.

The trial was a success. By linking the head to be transplanted to the recipient body and allowing blood to flow between them, the researchers were able to keep the brain well-oxygenated throughout the procedure. This research is far from human trials, though maverick surgeon Sergio Canavero is intent upon carrying out the first human head transplant in the near future. This would be utterly absurd, if Dr. Ren hadn’t agreed to help. As the foremost surgeon in this department, having now performed the procedure on thousands of animals, the two men might have a shot. Still, you wouldn’t find me volunteering for the procedure any time soon.

Scientists Find Brain’s Turbo Switch: FXR1P

Limitless

Why is this Important? Because this could be like a real-life version of the film Limitless. tl;dr (Long Story Short) Scientists appear to have…

Why is this Important?

Because this could be like a real-life version of the film Limitless.

tl;dr (Long Story Short)

Scientists appear to have found a regulator in the brain that suppresses the production of molecules required to build new memories, opening up the possibility that human brains are capable of much more.

Long Story

The brain’s untapped capabilities have often been the subject of speculation and notably forms that basis of the 2011 Bradley Cooper film Limitless. While the old adage that we only use 10% of our brains is untrue, the discovery of a ‘turbo switch’ for memory may suggest that there is more to our brains than we’re currently aware of.

Researchers have reportedly identified a molecule that limits brain processing and found that when it is removed, brain function and memory improves.

Tests on mice showed that a protein called FXR1P (Fragile X Related Protein 1) prevented production of the molecules needed to build new memories. When it was selectively removed from parts of the brain, connections between brain cells were strengthened, leading to improved recall in the mice.

“Our findings show that the brain has a key protein that limits the production of molecules necessary for memory formation,” Dr. Keith Murai from the Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre is quoted as saying in the Daily Mail. “When this brake-protein is suppressed, the brain is able to store more information.

“Future research in this area could be very interesting,” Murai continued. “If we can identify compounds that control the braking potential of FXR1P, we may be able to alter the amount of brain activity or plasticity.”

These developments could lead to crucial breakthroughs in treating neuro-degenerative diseases such as autism spectrum disorders and Alzheimer’s disease. And who knows, the idea of a pill to help the brain function better may not be the realm of science-fiction anymore.

Own the Conversation

Ask The Big Question: Will scientists one day unlock the brain’s true potential?

Disrupt Your Feed: I always knew it was Fragile X Related Protein 1’s fault that I didn’t do better in exams.

Drop This Fact: Recent research suggested that we do create memories in infancy but the brain deliberately forgets them in a process called infantile amnesia.

Expand Your Expertise

  • Scientists reveal molecular ‘turbo’ switch in the brain that could allow us to store MORE information and boost our brainpower [Daily Mail]
  • Total recall: The science behind it [Science Codex]

1)

Referenceshttps://web.archive.org/web/20150714121400/http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2834057/Scientists-reveal-molecular-turbo-switch-brain-allow-store-information-boost-brainpower.html

1. ↑ Source: Ask Men – http://ca.askmen.com/news/sports/scientists-find-brain-s-turbo-switch.html

Addiction and The Brain

It still happens today, although not as often. Some people think that addiction is something people can basically will themselves out of it, but that isn’t the way it works.

Addiction is a disease.

Nobody tells people to will themselves out of a cold or a broken arm. The problem with addiction is that it isn’t something that people can see – that is why some have a hard time believing in it, even though it affects millions of people around the world every day.

Addiction is considered a disease because of what it does to the brain. You know that the brain is the hub of everything – it is incredibly important to have a healthy brain so that an individual can, by extension, live a healthy and fulfilling life.

What happens to the brain when a person takes drug varies.

It depends on the drug, how many times the drug is ingested and the person that is taking the drugs. That doesn’t mean that someone’s brain will not be affected by it. Someone who takes drugs often cannot get out of affecting their brain.

One of the first steps in this change in the brain is how dopamine is produced. When someone takes drugs, they get a huge surge of dopamine, and that sensation seems to eclipse all the other sensations that produce dopamine for someone. The brain may get confused and it could replace the person’s hierarchy of needs.

The part that controls a person’s inhibitions in their brain is also affected. The person affected may also be unable to make sound decisions. This is particularly the case with drug users under 25 – especially those that have started taking drugs when they are teenagers.

This is why addiction is a disease.

It rewires a person’s brain circuitry and may even change their personality. Even though other people can’t see what is happening in their brain, people with addiction problems need to be treated by professionals as it would take a superhuman amount of strength on the part of their rewired brain to simply talk itself out of it.

Why Do I See Faces on Everything?

The oven, the wood carvings on your door, and your wallet all have one thing in common: you can see faces on them. They are inanimate objects and obviously have not been designed so that you can see faces on them. There are some famous examples, like Jesus on toast. Once you see the face on the inanimate object, you are in deep trouble – you will probably never be able to unsee it. The whole thing is a little unsettling. You know the cardboard box doesn’t have a face so why does it keep staring at you?

Why do we see faces everywhere?

There are some explanations. Some scientists believe that it may have something to do with the fact that humans needed to be able to identify each other’s face, so in an evolutionary context, it makes a lot of sense for us to be able to just look at a random object and make out a face pretty much instantly. Studies have shown that there is a certain part of your brain that activates when you believe that you have seen a face that is not active when you are just looking at objects.

This phenomena, which is actually called pareidolia, allows you not to just pick up faces from random objects. You can also tell whatever mood the face is in. Your oven may be angry, your cardboard box horrified, and your car may be giving you a big smile. These are things that you will know instantly, as soon as you look at something that even resembles a face.

How does it happen?

Well, your eyes see something, but they don’t process it for you. They just send the information to the brain, and your brain then tells you exactly what you are seeing. Since the brain needs to do this in a split second, it helps itself by predicting what it is more likely to see. That’s why you don’t just see faces, but you can also feel their mood. You react to these faces the same way you would to actual human faces, and while it can be kind of cute when they are a little silly, I’ve found that I’ve had to turn cardboard boxes to face away from me while moving because I couldn’t stand the feeling of being watched.

I know, it’s totally ridiculous. I’ll just blame my brain.

Let’s Talk About Your Brain

Not just about what it does or what it feels. Let’s talk about what is physically inside of your skull – that pinkish mass of electrodes and other goodies that is allowing you to read this article right now.

What does your brain look like?

Your brain is soft. It’s squishy. In fact, if you were to touch a brain, you would see how soft it is. It isn’t hard at all. Everything in your brain is really important so it is covered by a sheath of fat and that sheath makes up about 10% of the brain itself. This is called myelin and it is what makes it possible for electrical impulses to travel quickly inside your brain.

Your brain is inside your skull because it needs to be protected. The brain has two halves and is surprisingly heavy for what it is, because it is packed with lots of cells. We don’t actually know why the brain is in two halves – all we know about it is that the two halves are used for slightly different things but always communicate with one another.

The brain is also folded within itself. Scientists believe that the reason that they brain is so wrinkly is because the skull may just be too small to house the brain. Wrinkles aren’t a mark of how much you have learned, they actually develop when a fetus is still in the womb and don’t change. What does change as you learn other things is your brain’s plasticity.

The brain needs to be exercised and it is very similar to the rest of the body in a lot of ways. Although it is in charge of a lot and uses about 20% of our energy, it is still a muscle that you need to look after. You don’t have to just do brain training exercises, though. Being in love, listening to music, learning an instrument and exercising are all ways to keep your brain in top shape for as long as possible.

What Happens in the Brain During Isolation?

People that are in a state of isolation start experiencing odd things. Whether this state of isolation is due to self-imposition or due to an outside factor like incarceration, it certainly does something to the mind. What exactly does it do, though?

Let’s talk about loneliness.

That is the easiest way to approach the mystery that is isolation. Loneliness is physically bad for humans. People who are lonely are more prone to having Alzheimer’s or dementia in old age, have higher blood pressure and are more likely to be susceptible to infection. It also affects a plethora of other things – lonely people have a harder time paying attention and performing complex tasks. Their sleep patterns are also affected. When someone is lonely, they start to get a bunch of hormones and their system kind of goes into hyperdrive.

Great for our Neanderthal ancestors, not so much for us.

As far as effects in the mind, there are many. Time begins to distort, and people in isolation begin to experience anxiety and anguish. They don’t perform well in tests, for instance. There is an extensive study about humans in isolation – though it was originally about what happens when they reduced the subject’s perceptual simulation, it shed some light on what happens when humans become isolated from their environment.

The subjects, whom were paid for their time, experienced hallucinations and even when they were reintroduced into a normal environment had a hard time shaking off what they had felt while isolated. They had to cut the experiment short because the subjects were so distressed.

Experiments like this have been performed since and they all seem to yield the same result.

Subjects become distressed, anguished, hallucinate, become paranoid and cannot perform tasks at the same level that they could before.

What’s happening in the brain during all this?

One theory is that, because the brain is used to dealing with so many things at the same time, it really struggles to deal with nothing. The brain tries to make whatever information it has into a pattern, because things don’t make sense to it if it’s not getting stimulated. That’s why hallucinations happen – the brain is just trying to do it’s job, it just has nothing to do it with and it doesn’t know how to deal with that.

There is also a social factor. We take so many of our cues socially, and when we are in isolation, there is no way to do that. We are not sure what is or isn’t appropriate – basically, there is no gauge.

Why You Should Listen to Music as Much as Possible

Everyone likes music, but many people are not exactly sure how it affects their brain. Yes, listening to a sad song after a break-up is as satisfying as listening to a summer hit when in a nightclub. It’s just satisfying in a totally different way.

Music actually affects lots of different areas of the brain! You use a different part of your brain to perceive sound, then another one to emotionally react to music and a further one to tap your foot to it. You use a different area to look at someone performing music, but you use the same area to read music yourself.

When you listen to music, your brain releases dopamine.

Dopamine is that chemical that makes you happy, whether you just made a new friend, went on a good date or ate a french fry. How much dopamine you get depends on how well you know the source of the dopamine – which is to say, if you stumble across an awesome new song, more dopamine will be released than the first time you heard it.

It doesn’t just make you happy, though.

Listening to music can help you exercise, since your brain will be distracted from the fact that you are tired. The music that you listen to may also affect how you perceive your environment.

If you want to improve your skills, you should learn an instrument.

It wouldn’t just make you better at playing that particular instrument, it can help your fine motor skills, your reasoning skills and even your math skills. In fact, researchers believe that playing an instrument actually strengthens the link between the left and right hemisphere of the brain. That means that musicians may be better problem solvers. They may also have better memories and be able to think both creatively and cognitively faster than other people, and indeed, other artists.

If you want to increase not just your enjoyment but your cognitive skills, you may want to pick up an instrument. You can also find more about what neuroscientists are currently discovering about music and the people who play music here.

The Singularity: Could Your Brain Be Part of It?

You may have heard of the singularity. It is an incredibly popular theory that both scientists and philosophers are still exploring with great care. There are many books written about the subject and there are lots of movies that are based on the concept of the singularity. Transcendence, Her, The Matrix and Avatar are some of the most recent and perhaps most notable examples. All movies approach the singularity slightly differently from each other and that is because, while we have a basic understanding of what it is, it is hard to conceptualize.

What is the singularity?

In basic terms, it’s the idea that there would be a creation of super intelligence because of the way that technology works. Basically, it means that technology would change so much that those that existed before it would not even begin to grasp the concept of it. It’s not like the internet, or computers, or anything like that – or maybe it is that, just on a much, much bigger scale. What we do know for sure is that, when or if the singularity happens, it will be a point of no return. There will be no way to turn back to older technology. According to this Analee Newitz article on io9, we have had some singularities before. The author says, for instance, to picture yourself trying to explain the concept of the internet to someone living in the early 1000s.

Will the singularity happen?

Probably, but maybe not in the way we are thinking about it now. It is, for instance, a lot less likely that you could upload your consciousness onto a computer and for it to become self-aware than it is for self-replicating nanobots to be unleashed onto the medical universe. If they control themselves and can work in an atomic level then the singularity has happened.

As far as uploading your brain onto the singularity, we just don’t know. And then that begs the really important, very old question: Will it still be you, or just a digital copy?

Your Brain During an Orgasm

You have probably never thought about what your brain was doing when you were having an orgasm. After all, you were kind of busy.

You have probably never thought about what your brain was doing when you were having an orgasm.

After all, you were kind of busy.

What happens to your brain while you are having sex?

Well, your brain acts kind of like a pleasure center. It’s what tells you whether you like or you dislike something. This may be one of the reasons why women can experience two different types of orgasms – vaginal and clitoral. These types of orgasms are different from each other and vary in blood flow and sensation so it is an obvious conclusion that they would also vary in the brain. Different parts of genitalia have different nerves and the sensations that they transmit to your brain are different. This isn’t just in women – there are lots of different nerves in charge of different types of pleasurable sensation in your private parts, whatever your gender is.

When your nerves send these feelings to your brain and they flood the brain with lots of different chemicals. The level of your orgasm is obviously contingent on these chemicals. Lots of your brain is affected when you have an orgasm, but there aren’t that many differences between the genders.

If you are in a heterosexual relationship, you may be surprised at how similar your partner’s brain is to yours when you are having sex.

In fact, one of your brain regions shuts down altogether.

This is what controls your behavior.

An orgasm includes body spams, involuntary vocalizations and other involuntary bodily responses. Women’s brains when they have an orgasm are slightly different from men’s, too. When women achieve an orgasm, the PAG, which is the part of the brain that controls the fight or flight response, becomes activated. Scientists aren’t sure why yet, but they believe this is because women need to feel relaxed and safe before they have an orgasm, whereas this is not the same for men.

It isn’t just your brain that responds, but lots of your body. Everyone’s body is different so while some may experience cramping and others may experience heat expanding all over their bodies. An orgasm is fairly simple in physiological terms, there are just lots of things going on in your body and brain at the same time.

That is what makes you feel that kind of pleasure.